Heat Engine - Definition, Working, PV Diagram, Efficiency, Types
Last Updated : 01 Apr, 2024
Heat engines are devices that turn heat energy into motion or mechanical work. Heat engines are based on the principles of thermodynamics, specifically the conversion of heat into work according to the first and second laws of thermodynamics. They are found everywhere, from our cars, power plants to even old trains. Despite their wide use, they all share a common limitation that they can't be 100% efficient.
In this article we will learn in detail about Heat Engines, its working, diagram, efficiency, applications and limitations.
What are Heat Engines?
Heat engines are thermodynamic machines that converts heat energy into mechanical work. It transfers heat from a high-temperature reservoir (hot body) to a lower temperature sink (cold body) and harnesses this thermal energy to perform work, such as moving a piston or rotating a turbine. During this process, the system inevitably loses some energy as waste heat due to the inherent inefficiency in converting heat to work.
Definition of Heat Engines
Heat engines are the devices that convert heat energy into mechanical energy, harnessing thermal energy from a high-temperature source and transferring it to a cooler sink to produce work, often as motion.
It is governed by second law of thermodynamics. They inherently cannot achieve complete efficiency, always losing some energy as waste heat.
Components of a Heat Engine
The parts of heat engine are categorized into two types
Static Part of Heat Engine
A heat engine’s fixed components are the cylinder head, block, and crankcase.
Cylinder Head
- It Forms the top closure of the cylinder and often contains part of the combustion chamber.
- It houses components such as the intake and exhaust valves, spark plugs (in gasoline engines), and fuel injectors (in direct injection engines).
Block
- It is core structure of the engine, holding the cylinders where the pistons move up and down.
- The engine block also contains passageways for oil and coolant to maintain lubrication and optimal temperature.
Crankcase
- The lower part of the engine block, enclosing the crankshaft.
- It serves as a reservoir for the engine's oil and supports the lower ends of the cylinders.
Moving Part of Heat Engine
A heat engine’s moving parts include the connecting rod, piston, flywheel, and crankshaft.
Connecting Rod
- It Connects the piston to the crankshaft, transferring the force from the piston's linear motion to the crankshaft's rotational motion.
Piston
- A cylindrical component that moves up and down within the cylinder, compressing the fuel-air mixture (in gasoline engines) or air (in diesel engines) and transferring the energy from the combustion process to the connecting rod.
Flywheel
- Attached to the crankshaft, it stores rotational energy to smooth out the engine's power output, especially during the intervals between power strokes in multi-cylinder engines.
Crankshaft
- Converts the reciprocating motion of the pistons into rotational motion that ultimately powers the vehicle's drivetrain and accessories.
Some other parts are the bench, the cylinder, tray, oil tank, plunger pin, compression rings, spark plug, valve spring, camshaft, rocker, exhaust valve, suction valve and valve head .
Working Principle of Heat Engines
The core mechanism of a heat engine relies on transferring heat thermodynamically from a high-temperature source to a lower temperature sink, creating a flow of thermal energy that enables the engine to produce work. The laws of thermodynamics, especially the second law, intricately govern this process. This law dictates that converting heat into work requires a temperature differential and faces inherent efficiency limits.
During a heat engine's operation, introducing heat to the working material from a high-temperature source transforms a portion of this heat into mechanical work, while the engine expels the remaining heat to the cooler sink. This operation follows an important principle: the temperature of the heat sink must always be lower than that of the source.
Throughout their operational cycle, heat engines:
- Absorb heat from a high-temperature source
- Convert part of this heat into work
- Reject the remaining waste heat to a low-temperature sink.
For example, in a power plant scenario:
- A furnace acts as the energy source, transmitting heat (Qin) to the steam within the boiler.
- The steam's flow through the turbine leads to the generation of work (Wout).
- The steam's residual waste (Qout) heat is then transferred by a condenser to an energy sink, such as the atmosphere.
- Water cycles back to the boiler from the condenser via a pump, where work (Win) is required to pressurize the water back to boiler pressure.
The net work output of the power plant is calculated as the difference between the work produced and the work input, expressed as Wnet output = Wout-Win. This reveals the cycle’s energy balance to be Wnet output = Qin-Qout , highlighting the efficiency and operation of heat engines in converting thermal energy into usable mechanical work.
Mechanical Work Output
The mechanical work output of a heat engine is the practical result of the engine's operation, where the converted thermal energy is transformed into mechanical energy. This transformation allows the engine to perform physical tasks, such as moving pistons, driving turbines, rotating wheels, or generating electricity. The work output is essentially the energy that is harnessed to do something useful, beyond merely transferring heat from one place to another.
The mechanical work output is quantified as the difference between the heat energy absorbed from the source (Qin) and the heat energy expelled to the sink (Qout). This net work output (Wnet) can be expressed as Wnet = Qin-Qout , highlighting the efficiency of the heat engine in converting heat into usable work.
Types of Heat Engines
Heat engines manifest in various forms, each utilizing distinct methods to achieve energy transformation:
Internal Combustion Engines(ICEs)
In internal combustion engines, the fuel combustion process occurs inside the engine itself. The combustion of fuel produces high-pressure gases, which directly act on mechanical components of the engine, such as pistons, to produce motion. Car engines and Gas Turbines are very good example of this type of combustion engine.
It is also called 4-stroke because it takes 4 strokes for the piston to complete one combustion cycle. Example of an ICE is Gas Turbine which is discussed below:
Gas Turbines
Gas turbines are internal combustion engines that compress air and mix it with fuel, which is then burned at high temperatures to produce hot, pressurized gas. This gas expands through a turbine, creating powerful rotational energy used to drive generators, airplanes, and ships. Known for their high power-to-weight ratio and efficiency.
Key Features of ICEs
- Fuel Efficiency: Often more fuel-efficient in specific applications compared to external combustion engines.
- Power-to-Weight Ratio: High power-to-weight ratio, making them suitable for vehicles and portable machinery.
- Variety of Fuels: Can run on various fuels, including gasoline, diesel, and natural gas.
- Applications: Widely used in automobiles, motorcycles, small power generators, and aircraft
External Combustion Engines (ECEs)
External combustion engines generate mechanical work from an external heat source. The combustion process takes place outside the engine, and the generated heat is transferred to a working fluid within the engine, causing it to expand and do work.
A very good example of an external combustion engine is a steam engine and Stirling Engines .
Steam Engines
Steam engines are external combustion engines where water is heated to create steam in a boiler. This high-pressure steam then drives a piston or turbine, converting thermal energy into mechanical work. Historically significant, steam engines powered the Industrial Revolution, enabling advancements in transportation and manufacturing.
Stirling Engines
Stirling engines operate on a closed-loop cycle that moves a fixed amount of gas between hot and cold heat exchangers. Unlike steam engines, they can function with minimal noise and are highly efficient, capable of using any external heat source. This versatility allows Stirling engines to be used in various applications, from small generators to solar power systems, showcasing their potential in renewable energy technologies.
Key Features of ECEs:
- Versatility in Heat Sources: Can use a wide range of heat sources, including coal, natural gas, nuclear, solar, and biomass.
- Environmental Adaptability: Potentially less polluting, as the fuel type and combustion process can be optimized to reduce emissions.
- Complexity and Size: Typically larger and more complex than ICEs, making them less suitable for mobile applications.
- Applications: Primarily found in power generation facilities, steam locomotives, and certain marine applications
Heat Energy PV Diagram
Pressure-Volume (PV) diagrams serve as fundamental tools in analyzing the operation of heat engines, especially those utilizing gas as the working medium. In such engines, the PV diagram forms a closed loop that graphically represents the engine cycle. The area enclosed by this loop quantifies the net work produced during one cycle of operation.
Understanding engine efficiency through PV diagrams involves comparing the depicted engine cycle with the Carnot cycle, known for its maximum theoretical efficiency among heat engines.
Interpretation of PV Diagrams
- Isothermal Expansion at High Temperature: If the heat source is hot enough, the working fluid transitions from liquid to vapor at a constant temperature. This phase change occurs at constant pressure while the volume increases, indicating vaporization.
- Adiabatic and Reversible Expansion: In the turbine section, the gas undergoes adiabatic (no heat exchange) and reversible expansion, reducing its temperature as it expands. This process follows the specific equation of state governing adiabatic and reversible changes.
- Isothermal Compression at Low Temperature: When exposed to a cooler source, the working fluid shifts from gas back to liquid isothermally. During this phase change, the process maintains constant pressure while the volume decreases, reflecting condensation.
- Adiabatic and Reversible Compression: At the compressor stage, the fluid is adiabatically and reversibly compressed, increasing its pressure back to the starting condition without changing its temperature.
This cyclic process depicted on a PV diagram highlights the sequential thermodynamic transformations the working fluid undergoes, effectively illustrating how heat engines convert thermal energy into mechanical work.
Efficiency of Heat Engines
Efficiency of a heat engine is defined as the ratio of work output to heat input, expressed as a percentage. This metric illustrates how effectively a heat engine converts the thermal energy it receives into mechanical work. According to the second law of thermodynamics, it's impossible for any engine to achieve complete efficiency, indicating that some energy will always be lost in the conversion process.
Mathematically, efficiency (η) can be calculated as:
Given that the work done (W) is the difference between the heat input (Q1) and the heat rejected (Q2):
W=Q1-Q2
Substituting this into the equation for efficiency yields:
η = (Q1-Q2)/Q1 = 1- (Q2/Q1)
Hence, if Q2 =0, implying no heat is rejected, the efficiency would theoretically reach 100%. However, such a scenario is unattainable in practice due to inevitable energy losses within any real system. Consequently, every engine's efficiency is inherently capped.
Carnot Efficiency
Carnot engine represents a theoretical model of a perfectly efficient engine that operates on a reversible, closed thermodynamic cycle. Within this cycle, the working fluid undergoes four distinct stages: isothermal expansion, adiabatic (or isentropic) expansion, isothermal compression, and adiabatic compression. This idealized cycle serves as a foundational concept for understanding other thermodynamic cycles widely applied across various industries, notably in Carnot heat engines and refrigeration systems.
While the Carnot engine sets the standard for maximal theoretical efficiency, no practical engine can fully attain this efficiency due to inevitable losses, primarily from friction. The efficiency of a Carnot engine is determined solely by the temperatures of the hot and cold reservoirs it operates between.
In essence, the Carnot engine operates by absorbing heat (Q1) from a high-temperature source, converting part of that heat into work (W) by exploiting the difference in heat content (W=Q1-Q2), and then discharging the remaining heat (Q2) to a low-temperature sink.
Mathematically, Carnot efficiency (η) can be calculated as:
η = 1 - (Q2/Q1)
which is the efficiency of the heat engine.
If Q2 = 0, then efficiency = 100% . Carnot engine is known for this.
Examples of Heat Engine
- Automobile Engines: The most common example of internal combustion engines, where gasoline or diesel is burned.
- Steam Turbines in Power Plants: Utilize steam produced from boiling water to rotate turbines connected to generators, producing electricity.
- Jet Engines: A type of gas turbine where air intake is compressed, mixed with fuel, and ignited.
- Locomotives: Steam locomotives were powered by external combustion steam engines, converting coal-fired steam into motion.
- Stirling Engines: Found in specialized applications where quiet operation or the ability to use heat from renewable sources is advantageous, such as in solar power generation or underwater drones.
- Refrigeration and Heat Pumps: Though technically the reverse of a heat engine, these systems use similar principles to move heat against its natural flow for cooling or heating purposes.
- Marine Engines: Ships often use large diesel engines (internal combustion) or steam turbines for propulsion, depending on the ship's size and purpose.
Uses of Heat Engines
Heat engines are used in a wide range of applications due to their ability to convert thermal energy into mechanical work. Some common uses include:
- Power Generation: Converting thermal energy from combustion or nuclear reactions into electricity in power plants.
- Transportation: Powering vehicles such as cars, motorcycles, and airplanes with internal combustion engines.
- Industrial Applications: Driving factory machinery and industrial processes, often with steam engines or gas turbines.
- Aerospace: Propelling aircraft with jet engines and gas turbines through rapid exhaust gas expulsion.
- Renewable Energy Systems: Employing Stirling engines in solar and geothermal energy applications to generate electricity.
- Residential Heating and Cooling: Utilizing heat engines in heat pumps for efficient building temperature regulation.
Sample Questions on Heat Engines
Question 1: Given a heat engine with a heat input (Qin) of 500 J and a heat rejection (Qout) of 300 J, calculate its efficiency.
Answer:
The efficiency of the heat engine, given the heat input (Qin) of 500 J and heat rejection (Qout) of 300 J, is 40%.
Question 2: Why is it impossible to achieve 100% efficiency in a real heat engine, and what factors contribute to energy loss?
Answer:
Achieving 100% efficiency in a real heat engine is impossible due to the second law of thermodynamics, which dictates that some energy must always be lost as waste heat to the environment during the conversion process. Factors contributing to energy loss include friction, heat dissipation, and the inherent inefficiency of transferring heat between different temperatures. These irreversible processes ensure that not all input heat can be converted into useful work, limiting the engine's efficiency.
Question 3: Discuss the role of gas turbines in renewable energy systems. How do they contribute to energy sustainability?
Answer:
Gas turbines play a pivotal role in renewable energy systems by providing flexible, efficient backup power for intermittent renewable sources like solar and wind. They can quickly ramp up to full power, compensating for variability in renewable energy production and ensuring a stable energy supply. Gas turbines also have the potential to run on sustainable fuels, such as hydrogen or biofuels, further contributing to energy sustainability by reducing reliance on fossil fuels and lowering carbon emissions. Their adaptability and efficiency make them crucial in the transition towards more sustainable and resilient energy systems.
Question 4: Explain how the second law of thermodynamics limits the efficiency of a heat engine.
Answer:
The second law of thermodynamics limits the efficiency of heat engines by necessitating that some input heat is always expelled as waste to the sink, preventing the complete conversion of heat into work and underscoring the inherent inefficiencies in energy transformation processes.
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First Law of Thermodynamics
First Law of Thermodynamics adaptation of the Law of Conservation of Energy differentiates between three types of energy transfer: Heat, Thermodynamic Work, and Energy associated with matter transfer. It also relates each type of energy transfer to a property of a body's Internal Energy. The First L
8 min read
Second Law of Thermodynamics
Second Law of Thermodynamics defines that heat cannot move from a reservoir of lower temperature to a reservoir of higher temperature in a cyclic process. The second law of thermodynamics deals with transferring heat naturally from a hotter body to a colder body. Second Law of Thermodynamics is one
10 min read
Thermodynamic Cycles
Thermodynamic cycles are used to explain how heat engines, which convert heat into work, operate. A thermodynamic cycle is used to accomplish this. The application determines the kind of cycle that is employed in the engine. The thermodynamic cycle consists of a series of interrelated thermodynamic
15 min read
Thermodynamic State Variables and Equation of State
The branch of thermodynamics deals with the process of heat exchange by the gas or the temperature of the system of the gas. This branch also deals with the flow of heat from one part of the system to another part of the system. For systems that are present in the real world, there are some paramete
5 min read
Enthalpy: Definition, Formula and Reactions
Enthalpy is the measurement of heat or energy in the thermodynamic system. It is the most fundamental concept in the branch of thermodynamics. It is denoted by the symbol H. In other words, we can say, Enthalpy is the total heat of the system. Let's know more about Enthalpy in detail below. Enthalpy
13 min read
State Functions
State Functions are the functions that are independent of the path of the function i.e. they are concerned about the final state and not how the state is achieved. State Functions are most used in thermodynamics. In this article, we will learn the definition of state function, what are the state fun
7 min read
Carnot Engine
A Carnot motor is a hypothetical motor that works on the Carnot cycle. Nicolas Leonard Sadi Carnot fostered the fundamental model for this motor in 1824. In this unmistakable article, you will find out about the Carnot cycle and Carnot Theorem exhaustively. The Carnot motor is a hypothetical thermod
5 min read
Heat Engine - Definition, Working, PV Diagram, Efficiency, Types
Heat engines are devices that turn heat energy into motion or mechanical work. Heat engines are based on the principles of thermodynamics, specifically the conversion of heat into work according to the first and second laws of thermodynamics. They are found everywhere, from our cars, power plants to
14 min read
Wave and Oscillation
Introduction to Waves - Definition, Types, Properties
A wave is a propagating dynamic disturbance (change from equilibrium) of one or more quantities in physics, mathematics, and related subjects, commonly described by a wave equation. At least two field quantities in the wave medium are involved in physical waves. Periodic waves occur when variables o
11 min read
Wave Motion
Wave Motion refers to the transfer of energy and momentum from one point to another in a medium without actually transporting matter between the two points. Wave motion is a kind of disturbance from place to place. Wave can travel in solid medium, liquid medium, gas medium, and in a vacuum. Sound wa
12 min read
Oscillation
Oscillations are defined as the process of repeating vibrations of any quantity about its equilibrium position. The word “oscillation†originates from the Latin verb, which means to swing. An object oscillates whenever a force pushes or pulls it back toward its central point after displacement. This
8 min read
Oscillatory Motion Formula
Oscillatory Motion is a form of motion in which an item travels over a spot repeatedly. The optimum situation can be attained in a total vacuum since there will be no air to halt the item in oscillatory motion friction. Let's look at a pendulum as shown below. The vibrating of strings and the moveme
3 min read
Amplitude Formula
The largest deviation of a variable from its mean value is referred to as amplitude. It is the largest displacement from a particle's mean location in to and fro motion around a mean position. Periodic pressure variations, periodic current or voltage variations, periodic variations in electric or ma
7 min read
What is Frequency?
Frequency is the rate at which the repetitive event that occurs over a specific period. Frequency shows the oscillations of waves, operation of electrical circuits and the recognition of sound. The frequency is the basic concept for different fields from physics and engineering to music and many mor
9 min read
Amplitude, Time Period and Frequency of a Vibration
Sound is a form of energy generated by vibrating bodies. Its spread necessitates the use of a medium. As a result, sound cannot travel in a vacuum because there is no material to transfer sound waves. Sound vibration is the back and forth motion of an entity that causes the sound to be made. That is
5 min read
Energy of a Wave Formula
Wave energy, often referred to as the energy carried by waves, encompasses both the kinetic energy of their motion and the potential energy stored within their amplitude or frequency. This energy is not only essential for natural processes like ocean currents and seismic waves but also holds signifi
7 min read
Simple Harmonic Motion
Simple Harmonic Motion is a fundament concept in the study of motion, especially oscillatory motion; which helps us understand many physical phenomena around like how strings produce pleasing sounds in a musical instrument such as the sitar, guitar, violin, etc., and also, how vibrations in the memb
15+ min read
Displacement in Simple Harmonic Motion
The Oscillatory Motion has a big part to play in the world of Physics. Oscillatory motions are said to be harmonic if the displacement of the oscillatory body can be expressed as a function of sine or cosine of an angle depending upon time. In Harmonic Oscillations, the limits of oscillations on eit
10 min read
Sound
Production and Propagation of Sound
Have you ever wonder how are we able to hear different sounds produced around us. How are these sounds produced? Or how a single instrument can produce a wide variety of sounds? Also, why do astronauts communicate in sign languages in outer space? A sound is a form of energy that helps in hearing to
6 min read
What are the Characteristics of Sound Waves?
Sound is nothing but the vibrations (a form of energy) that propagates in the form of waves through a certain medium. Different types of medium affect the properties of the wave differently. Does this mean that Sound will not travel if the medium does not exist? Correct. It will not, It is impossibl
7 min read
Speed of Sound
Speed of Sound as the name suggests is the speed of the sound in any medium. We know that sound is a form of energy that is caused due to the vibration of the particles and sound travels in the form of waves. A wave is a vibratory disturbance that transfers energy from one point to another point wit
12 min read
Reflection of Sound
Reflection of Sound is the phenomenon of striking of sound with a barrier and bouncing back in the same medium. It is the most common phenomenon observed by us in our daily life. Let's take an example, suppose we are sitting in an empty hall and talking to a person we hear an echo sound which is cre
9 min read
Refraction of Sound
A sound is a vibration that travels as a mechanical wave across a medium. It can spread via a solid, a liquid, or a gas as the medium. In solids, sound travels the quickest, comparatively more slowly in liquids, and the slowest in gases. A sound wave is a pattern of disturbance caused by energy trav
5 min read
How do we hear?
Sound is produced from a vibrating object or the organ in the form of vibrations which is called propagation of sound and these vibrations have to be recognized by the brain to interpret the meaning which is possible only in the presence of a multi-functioning organ that is the ear which plays a hug
7 min read
Audible and Inaudible Sounds
We hear sound whenever we talk, listen to some music, or play any musical instrument, etc. But did you ever wondered what is that sound and how is it produced? Or why do we hear to our own voice when we shout in a big empty room loudly? What are the ranges of sound that we can hear? In this article,
10 min read
Explain the Working and Application of SONAR
Sound energy is the type of energy that allows our ears to sense something. When a body vibrates or moves in a ‘to-and-fro' motion, a sound is made. Sound needs a medium to flow through in order to propagate. This medium could be in the form of a gas, a liquid, or a solid. Sound propagates through a
8 min read
Noise Pollution
Noise pollution is the pollution caused by sound which results in various problems for Humans. A sound is a form of energy that enables us to hear. We hear the sound from the frequency range of 20 to 20000 Hertz (20kHz). Humans have a fixed range for which comfortably hear a sound if we are exposed
8 min read
Doppler Effect - Definition, Formula, Examples
Doppler Effect is an important phenomenon when it comes to waves. This phenomenon has applications in a lot of fields of science. From nature's physical process to planetary motion, this effect comes into play wherever there are waves and the objects are traveling with respect to the wave. In the re
7 min read
Doppler Shift Formula
When it comes to sound propagation, the Doppler Shift is the shift in pitch of a source as it travels. The frequency seems to grow as the source approaches the listener and decreases as the origin fades away from the ear. When the source is going toward the listener, its velocity is positive; when i
3 min read
Electrostatics
Electrostatics
Electrostatics is the study of electric charges that are fixed. It includes an study of the forces that exist between charges as defined by Coulomb's Law. The following concepts are involved in electrostatics: Electric charge, electric field, and electrostatic force. Electrostatic forces are non con
14 min read
Electric Charge
Electric Charge is the basic property of a matter that causes the matter to experience a force when placed in a electromagnetic field. It is the amount of electric energy that is used for various purposes. Electric charges are categorized into two types, that are, Positive ChargeNegative ChargePosit
8 min read
Coulomb's Law
Coulomb’s Law is defined as a mathematical concept that defines the electric force between charged objects. Columb's Law states that the force between any two charged particles is directly proportional to the product of the charge but is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between t
9 min read
Electric Dipole
An electric dipole is defined as a pair of equal and opposite electric charges that are separated, by a small distance. An example of an electric dipole includes two atoms separated by small distances. The magnitude of the electric dipole is obtained by taking the product of either of the charge and
11 min read
Dipole Moment
Two small charges (equal and opposite in nature) when placed at small distances behave as a system and are called as Electric Dipole. Now, electric dipole movement is defined as the product of either charge with the distance between them. Electric dipole movement is helpful in determining the symmet
6 min read
Electrostatic Potential
Electrostatic potential refers to the amount of electrical potential energy present at a specific point in space due to the presence of electric charges. It represents how much work would be done to move a unit of positive charge from infinity to that point without causing any acceleration. The unit
12 min read
Electric Potential Energy
Electrical potential energy is the cumulative effect of the position and configuration of a charged object and its neighboring charges. The electric potential energy of a charged object governs its motion in the local electric field. Sometimes electrical potential energy is confused with electric po
15+ min read
Potential due to an Electric Dipole
The potential due to an electric dipole at a point in space is the electric potential energy per unit charge that a test charge would experience at that point due to the dipole. An electric potential is the amount of work needed to move a unit of positive charge from a reference point to a specific
7 min read
Equipotential Surfaces
When an external force acts to do work, moving a body from a point to another against a force like spring force or gravitational force, that work gets collected or stores as the potential energy of the body. When the external force is excluded, the body moves, gaining the kinetic energy and losing a
8 min read
Capacitor and Capacitance
Capacitor and Capacitance are related to each other as capacitance is nothing but the ability to store the charge of the capacitor. Capacitors are essential components in electronic circuits that store electrical energy in the form of an electric charge. They are widely used in various applications,
11 min read